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The Flash Recovery Area is a new concept in Oracle 10g and above. Starting with 10g and for the first time in many years (over 25 years), the basic concept behind database backups has changed in Oracle. In the past, the design of backup and recovery in the database was built around the concept of a sequential medium, such as a tape device. That is, random access devices (disk drives) were always considered too expensive to waste for mere backups. You used relatively inexpensive tape devices with large storage capacities. Today, however, you can buy terabytes of disk storage at a very low cost. In fact, my son Alan is the first kid on the block with a 1TB NAS (network attached storage device). It cost $125.00 USD. I remember my first hard drive on my personal computer: a whopping 40MB. I actually had to partition it into two logical disks because the OS I was using (MS-DOS at the time) could not recognize a disk larger than 32MB. Things have certainly changed in the last 25 years or so. The Flash Recovery Area in Oracle is a location where the database will manage many of the files related to database backup and recovery. In this area (an area being a part of a disk set aside for this purpose; a directory, for example), you could find Copies of data files on disk Incremental backups of your database Redo logs (archived redo logs) Control files and backups of control files Flashback logs

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member g.Build(f) = match f with | And(x,y) -> g.And(g.Build x, g.Build y) | Var(p) -> g.Var(p) | Not(x) -> g.Not(g.Build x) | False -> g.False | Exists(v,p) -> failwith "Exists node" member g.Equiv p1 p2 = (g.Build(p1) = g.Build(p2)) You can now install a pretty-printer and inspect the BDDs for some simple formulae: > let bddBuilder = BddBuilder(compare);; val bddBuilder: BddBuilder > fsi.AddPrinter(fun bdd -> bddBuilder.ToString(bdd));; val it: unit = () > bddBuilder.Build(var "x");; val it : Bdd = (x => T | F) > bddBuilder.Build(var "x" &&& var "x");; val it : Bdd = (x => T | F) > bddBuilder.Build(var "x") = bddBuilder.Build(var "x" &&& var "x");; val it : bool = true > (var "x") = (var "x" &&& var "x");; val it : bool = false > bddBuilder.Build(var "x" &&& var "y");; val it : Bdd = (x => (y => T | F) | F) > bddBuilder.Equiv (var "x") (var "x" &&& var "x");; val it : bool = true Note that the BDD representations of x and x AND x are identical, while the Prop representations are not. The Prop representation is an abstract syntax representation, while the BDD representation is more of a semantic or computational representation. The BDD representation incorporates all the logic necessary to prove propositional formula equivalent; in other words, this logic is built into the representation itself.

Oracle uses this new area to manage these files, so the server will know what is on disk and what is not on disk (and perhaps on tape elsewhere). Using this information, the database can perform operations like a disk-to-disk restore of a damaged data file or the flashing back (a rewind operation) of the database to undo an operation that should not have taken place. For example, you could use the FLASHBACK DATABASE command to put the database back the way it was five minutes ago (without doing a

full restore of the database and a point-in-time recovery). That would allow you to undrop that accidentally dropped user account. The Flash Recovery Area is more of a logical concept. It is a holding area for the file types discussed in this chapter. Its use is optional you don t need to use it, but if you want to use some advanced features such as the Flashback Database, you must use this area to store the information.

You can now use BDDs to perform circuit verification. For example, the following verifies that you can swap the x and y inputs to an 8-bit adder:

DMP Files (EXP/IMP Files)

Export and Import are venerable Oracle data extraction and load tools that have been around for many versions. Export s job is to create a platform-independent DMP file that contains all of the required metadata (in the form of CREATE and ALTER statements), and optionally the data itself to re-create tables, schemas, or even entire databases. Import s sole job is to read these DMP files, and execute the DDL statements and load any data it finds.

> bddBuilderEquiv (nBitCarryRippleAdder 8 (vec 8 "x") (vec 8 "y") (vec 8 "sum") (vec 9 "carry")) (nBitCarryRippleAdder 8 (vec 8 "y") (vec 8 "x") (vec 8 "sum") (vec 9 "carry"));; val it : bool = true Thirty-three variables are involved in this circuit A naive exploration of this space would involve searching a truth table of more than eight billion entries The BDD implementation takes moments on any modern computer Efficient symbolic representations pay off! A more substantial verification problem involves checking the equivalence of circuits that have substantial structural differences To explore this, let s take a different implementation of addition called a carry select adder.

Note Export is officially deprecated with Oracle Database 11g Release 2. It is supplied only for use with legacy

database structures. New datatypes, new structures, new database features will not be supported by this tool. I strongly recommend using Data Pump, the export/import replacement tool introduced with Oracle 10g a few years back.